IX.Chapter 5 Pastoralists in the Modern World.History

                                                                                  Chapter -5

     
                                                              Pastorals in the Modern World                                  

                                Important dates

               1913 :- H.S. Gibson, the Deputy Conservator of Forests, Darjeeling, wrote that forest which 
is used for grazing can not be used for any other purpose and is unable to yield timber and fuel,
which are main legitimate forest produce.Criminal Tribes Act was passed by the Colonial Govn. in India.

              1850-1880 :- The Right to collect tax was given to contractors through auctions.

               1947 :- The camel and ship herders could no longer move into Sindh and graze their camels
on the banks of the Indus, as they had been doing earlier.

             1885 :- Maasai land was cut into half with an international boundary between British Kenya
 and German Tanganyika.The British took Tanganyika under their control.

            1961 :- Tanganyika gained independence from British.

            1964 :- Tanganyika united with Zanzibar to form Tanzania.

            1949 :- The Kaokoland herders of Nambia made a complaint against the new system of
territorial boundaries.

           1998 :- The complaint/statement of Kaokoland herders was quoted in Michael Bollig.

           1937,24 Nov :-The Magistrate gave instructions to the police station commanders to prevent
 them from entering white areas.

           1930 :-The enquiry revealed that the Maasai in Kenya possessed 7, 20,000 cattle, 8, 20,000 sheep and 1, 71,000 donkeys.

          1933-1934 :- Just after two years of severe drought, which occurred in 1933-1934, over half
 the cattle in the Maasai Reserve Perished.

          1928 :- The Report of the Royal Commission of Agriculture in India.

                              

                                                                            Inside question-answers

       Q1.Name any five important pastoral nomadic communities found in India in the mountains,
 plains, and plateau and desert regions.
      Ans(i)Mountains: Gujjars, Bakarwala, Gaddi’s
             (ii)Plains and Plateau: Dhangars, Banjara
             (iii)Desert region: Raikas

       Q2. Name any four states/regions in India where pastoral Nomadism is practised.

        Ans.- (i) Jammu and Kashmir

       (ii) Himachal Pradesh

                            (iii) Maharashtra

                            (iv) Uttar Pradesh

                            (v) Rajasthan.

                              Q3. Gujjars herders originally belong to which state.

                             Ans.- The Gujjars herders originally came from the state of Jammu and Kashmir. In the 19^th century search

                      for pastures brought them to hills of Uttar Pradesh.

                              Q4. What is the pattern of migration of Gujjars herders?

                               Ans.- The Gujjar herders in winters came down to the dry forests of the bhabhar and in summers they

                    went up to the high meadows i.e., bugyals.

                             Q5. Who are Raikas? Where are they found?

                             Ans.- Raikas are a nomadic community found in the deserts of Rajasthan. They are pastoralists and

                      cultivators.

                              Q6. Why did pastoral communities move from place to place?

                              Ans.- Pastoral communities moved from place to place in search of pastures for their cattle.

      Q7. Give any one change that occurred in Massai society during colonial rule.

                             Ans.- During colonial rule the traditional difference based on age between elders and warriors was

                             disturbed and a new distinction between wealthy and poor pastoralists developed.

                             Q8. Give names of any two pastoral communities of Africa.   

                            Ans.-  (i)Bedouins       (ii)Berbers

                             Q9. Give any two factors for pastoral communities being nomadic.

                             Ans.- Pastoral communities are nomadic because:

                       (i) It enables them to survive bad times and avoid crisis in difficult terrain.

                             (ii) Continuous movement is also because of exhaustion of pasture and there unusability.

                              Q10. What was the Grazing Act? Why did the pastoralists hate it?

      Ans. - By the Grazing Act, the British levied tax on the pastoralists, on every animal they took to

pastures to graze. It was hated by the impoverished pastoral community for it was contrary to their

customary rights.

      Q11. Give one reason why the British passed the Criminal Tribes Act?

      Ans.- The British considered traders, craftsmen and pastoralists to be criminal by nature. The Criminal

Tribes Act was passed so that they could identify and control these communities.

     Q12. Define the term Pastoral Nomadism.

Ans.-Pastoral Nomadism is a form of subsistence agriculture based on herding of domesticated animals.

Under this, people do not live in one place but move from one place to another along with their animals

 in search of fresh grazing areas.

     Q13. In which two categories was the Massai society divided? What was their role?

      Ans.-Massai society was divided into two social categories:

                             (i)Elders: The rulers who periodically met to decide on community affairs.

     (ii)Warriors:The warriors were the younger people who were responsible for the protection of

the tribe and  organised cattle   raid

      Q14. Mention any four characteristics of nomadic people.

      Ans.- Characteristics of nomadic people:

      (i) In contrast to the subsistence farmers pastoral nomads depend primarily on animals rather than

crops for survival.

       (ii) Most nomadic people follow a barter system though some use money also. They exchange animals

 for food or grains

       (iii) The size of the herd is both an important measure of power and prestige and their main security

during adverse environmental conditions.

       (iv) The animals provide milk; butter and their skin and hair are used for clothing and tents.

       Q15. Give any two reasons why pastoralism should be encouraged.

        Ans.-Pastoralism as a way of life should be encouraged because:-                   

        (i) Pastoralism provides a way of supporting population in a difficult environment and represents a

        sustainable    approach to land.

         (ii) Continuous movement allows the pastures to recover and prevents heir deterioration due to over

   graze.

      Q16. Give the names of four pastoral communities of Africa? Where are they found? What

are their occupations?

      Ans.-Pastoral communities of Africa are:

      (i)Bedouins    (ii) Berbers    (iii) Maasai    (iv) Turkana.

Most of them are found in semi-arid grasslands and arid deserts where agriculture is difficult. Some

combine pastoral activity with agriculture, i.e., raise cattle, camels, goats and sell products like meat

and milk. Others did a variety of odd jobs, related to trade and transport to supplement their incomes.

          Q17. Give some similarities in the lifestyle of Gujjar Bakarwala of Jammu and Kashmir

  and Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh.

       Ans.-Both Gujjar Bakarwala and Gaddi are:

       (i) Herders of goat and sheep.

       (ii) Both have similar cycle of seasonal movements.

       (iii) In winters they lived with their herds in the low hills of shiwalik range grazing their flocks on scrub

forests.

       (iv) Both with the onset of summer moved northwards. The Gaddis spent summer in Lahul and Spiti

valleys while Gujjars crossed the Pir Panjal passes and entered the Kashmir valley.

       (v) By September, again both move again to their winter base.

       Q18. How did the Maasai chiefs appointed by the British benefit economically? 

       Ans.-The Maasai chiefs benefitted economically in many ways:

      (i) The chiefs became wealthy, as they now had a regular income with which they could buy animals,

goods and land.

      (ii) Many became traders and indulged in money lending to poor neighbours.

     (iii) Secure income enabled them to buy animals when their stock depleted and survive adverse conditions

 like wars and draughts.

      Q19. Briefly describe pre-colonial Maasai society and the changes in the colonial period.

      Ans. - In pre-colonial times Maasai society was divided into two social categories (i) Elders (ii) Warriors.

The elders who formed the ruling group, were the advisors and settled disputes. The younger people were

the warriors. They defended the community and organised raids. Wealth was assessed in terms of cattle.

Through raids, power and prestige of different pastoral groups was asserted. Under the British colonisers,

chiefs of different sub-groups of Maasai’s were made responsible for the affairs of the tribe. Also

restrictions were imposed on warfare and raiding. These measures of the British had serious implications

on Maasai. Consequently:

      (i) The traditional authority based on age between elders and warriors was disturbed.

      (ii) There developed a distinction between wealthy and poor pastoralists. Chiefs had both pastoral and

non-pastoral income. Often they accumulated wealth either through trade or by indulging in money

lending activities

      (iii) The life of the poor pastoralists who depended only on livestock was badly affected. Many were

forced to give up their old occupation and had to earn out a living as charcoal burners or by seeking jobs

 in towns.

          Q20. Who were the Dhangars, what was their occupation, and why were they continuously on

the move?

         Ans.-The Dhangars were an important pastoral community of Maharashtra. They were mostly

shepherds, some were blanket weavers and others were buffalo herders. They were continuously on the move

because:

       (i) they were in need for search of new pastures for their cattle.

       (ii) They lived in a semi arid region with low rainfall and poor soil, where only bajra could be sown.

       (iii) in October they moved to Konkan

area because of the rich agricultural tract. The Dhangar flocks manured the fields and fed on

stubble.

        (iv) the Konkan peasants gave Dhangars, supplies of rice in return for their

services.

         (v) they moved with the onset of monsoons as the sheep could not tolerate wet monsoon conditions

                                                         OUTSIDE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

       Q1. Explain why nomadic tribes need to move from one place to another. What are the

advantages to the environment of this continuous movement?

       Ans.- The nomadic tribes move from one place to another to adjust to seasonal changes and make

effective use of pastures available in different parts in different regions

      EXAMPLE 1: The nomadic pastoralists of the mountains, Gujjar Bakarwala of Jammu and Kashmir,

Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh to avoid harsh winters and make available grazing pasture move

down to low hills. They graze their herd on dry scrub forests. With the onset of summer in April they again

move upwards. With the snow melted, sprouted grasses provide rich nutritious forage for the animal herd.

                    EXAMPLE 2:-The nomadic pastoralists of the desert region, e.g., Raikas of Rajasthan combine

cultivation with pastoralism. The movement of these tribes like those of nomads of plains is dictated by the

onset of monsoon. During monsoons they stay in their home villages grazing their cattle on available

pastures and tilling the land. By October when these grazing grounds are exhausted and cultivation harvested

they move in search of other pastures and water.Nomadic tribes combine a range of different activities –

herding, trading, and cultivation. Apart from need for grazing pastures their movement is partially influenced

by need to sell plough, cattle and goods to villagers. The advantage to the environment from this

continuous movement are-

            (i) Continuous movement of the nomadic tribes allowed the pastures to recover; it prevented their

overuse and     intensive grazing, which would lead to deterioration of pastures.

            (ii) Enabled pastoralists to build a relationship with farmers on the way so that the herds could

graze on the stubble of the harvested field. This helped in weeding the soil of leftovers and the cattle also

helped in manuring the soil.                  

           (iii) Nomadic pastoralism provided a way out for supporting a population in a difficult environment

and presented a sustainable approach to land use.

           Q2. Discuss why the colonial government in India brought in the following laws. In each case,

explain how the law changed the lives of pastoralists:-

                           (i) Waste Land Rule:- Colonial government brought in the Waste Land Act because it regarded

all uncultivated land as waste land. It produced neither revenue nor agricultural produce. By expanding

cultivation it sought to increase its revenue collection.It changed the lives of the pastoralists because

in most areas, lands taken over were originally grazing tracts used by pastoralists. Expansion of agriculture

thus meant the decline of pastures and problems for pastoralists. Lands taken over were given to

selective individuals, many of whom were made village headmen.

                        (ii) Forest acts:- The colonial government enacted the Forest Acts to help provide and grow more

               imber trees to meet the requirements of shipyards and railways. They believed grazing destroyed the saplings

               and young shoots of trees that germinated on the forest floor.This Acts changed the life of the pastoralists

               because:(i) forests were hence classified into Reserved, Protected and Village forests. (ii) The grazing rights

               of pastoralists were severely restricted. They were prevented from entering many forests that had earlier

               provided forage for their cattle.(iii) Even in areas where they were allowed entry, they needed permits.

               Permits regulated their lives

          (iii) Criminal Tribes Act:- The British were suspicious of nomadic people. They wanted them to

 settle in villages. The Criminal Tribes Act was enacted to compel the nomadic people to settle in fixed

places with fixed rights on particular fields so that they could be easily controlled,

          (i) By this Act those who hawked their goods- traders, pastoralists and craftsmen were classified

as criminals by nature and birth.

          (ii) These communities were to live in notified village settlements.

          (iii) They were not allowed to move out without permit.

          (iv) Village police kept a continuous watch on them. They law was stifling and curbed

the   movement of the pastoralists. They were always looked at with suspicion.

           (iv) Grazing Act:- As per the grazing tax pastoralists had to pay a tax on every animal they

 grazed on pastures. It was imposed because the colonial government wanted to enhance its

revenue income and control grazing rights of the pastoralists.Initially the tax collection was

 auctioned to private contractors but by 1880s government started collecting it directly from

 pastoralists. Henceforth, the cattle herder had to seek a permit to enter a grazing area to graze his

 cattle and pay tax on the basis of per head cattle. The grazing tax, apart from being restrictive,

 was an additional burden on the poor pastoralists.

                      

                         Q3. Give reasons to explain why the Maasai community lost their grazing lands.

Ans.-The Maasai community lost their lands because:-

European imperial powers scramble for territorial possessions in Africa led to slicing up of the

 continent into different regions/colonies. Maasai land was divided between British Kenya and

 German Tanganyika. This restricted the movement of the Maasai's between regions.

In late 19^th century local peasant communities were encouraged by the British colonisers to expand

cultivation at the expense of pasture lands.

Large area of Maasai grazing lands were turned into game reserves, e.g., Samburu National Park

 in Kenya and Serengeti Park in Tanzania. These reserves were out of bound of the pastoralists.

For lands which were available special permits were required and rules lay down. In case of default

 Maasai’s were subject to harassment and severely punished.

In pre-colonial times the Maasai pastoralists had dominated their neighbours economically and

 politically but by the end of colonial rule the situation was reversed.

          Q4. There are many similarities in the way in which the modern world forced changes

 in the lives of pastoral communities in India and East Africa. Write about any two examples

 of changes which were similar for Indian pastoralists and the Maasai herders.

          Ans.-Both the Indian pastoralists and Maasai herders were denied grazing and entry rights

 on large tracts of traditional grazing lands. Best of these were converted to reserved forests and

 game reserves. Their mobility was severely restricted whereby fodder was in short supply and

 feeding the cattle became a persistent problem. Many of them were thereby forced to give up their

 old mode of occupation.

Both were subject to new taxes like grazing tax, they had to secure special permits to graze thei

r herds in certain areas. They were looked upon with suspicion, and in case of defaults subject to

 harassment and severe punishment.

                      

            Q5.Describe the pastoral nomads

         a.The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir

The Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir are Great herders of goat and sheep. In the 19^th

 century many of them migrated to this region in search of pastures for their animals. With the

 passage of time they established themselves in the area, and moved annually between their

 summer and winter grazing grounds. In winter, when the high mountains were covered with snow,

they migrated and lived with their herds in the low hills of Siwalik range. Here they go the dry

 scrub forest which provided pasture for their herds. With the onset of summer the mountain sides

 were covered with lush green grasses by the end of April they started their northern march for

 their summer grazing grounds.By the end of September the Bakarwals once again move this time

 on their downward journey.

   

         b.The Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Pradesh

The Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh had the same cycle of seasonal movement as that of

the Gujjars Bakarwals. They too passed of their winter in the low hills of Siwalik range, grazing

 their flocks in the scrub forests. By April they moved to the North and spent the summer in Lahul

 and Spiti. When the snow melted further and the high passes were clear, many of them moved on

 to higher mountain meadows. By September they again started their return movement. On the

 way they stopped in Lahul and Spiti, where they reaped their summer harvest and sow their winter

 crops.

      

     c.The Gujjars in Garhwal and Kumaon

The Gujjars in Garhwal and Kumaon went down to the dry forests of the bhabhar in the winter,

 and went up to the high meadows in summer. Several of them originally belonged to Jammu and

 came to the UP hills in the 19^th century in search of better pastures.

   d.The Bhautiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris

The pattern of cyclical movement between summer and winter pastures was unique of several

 pastoral communities of the Himalayas, including the Bhautiyas, Sherpas and Kinnauris. All of

 them had adjusted to seasonal changes and made effective use of available pastures in various

 places. When the pastures got exhausted or unusable in one place they moved their herds and

 flocks to new areas. This continuous movement helped the pastures to recover, it prevented over

 use.

       e.The Dhangars of Maharashtra

The Dhangars were an important pastoral community. Their population in this reason in the early

 20^th century was estimated to be 4,67,000. Most of them were shepherd, some were blanket

 weavers & still others were buffalo herders. The Dhangars shepherds earned their livelihoods by

 staying in Maharashtra during the monsoon.

The soil was of so fertile because of low rainfall. It was covered with horny scrub. By October the

 Dhangars harvested their bajra which was one of the few dry crops which could be shown here &

 started to move towards west. After about a month they reached the Konkan which was a

 flourishing agricultural tract. Here the shepherds were welcome by Konkani peasants. The fields

 had to be fertilised & prepared ready for the harvest. Dhangars flocks manured the fields and fed

 on the stubble. The peasants also supplied rice to Dhangars shepherds. With the onset of monsoon

 the Dhangars left the Konkan and the coastal areas with their flocks and come back to their

 setlements on the dry plateau.

   

           f.The Gollas, Kurumas and Kurubas

The Gollas herded cattle. The Kurumas and Kurubas reared sheeps and goats and  they prepared

 woven blankets and sold them locally. They resided near the woods and cultivated small patches

 of land. They were engaged in a variety of peetty trades and took care of their herds. Unlike the

 Mountain Pastoralists it was not the cold and the snow that caused the seasonal rythms of their

 movement; rather it was the alteration of the monsoons and dry seasons. In the dry season they

 came to the coastal tracts, and left on the onset of the rainy season.

             g.The Banjaras

The Banjaras was one of the well-known group of graziers. They lived in the villages of Uttar

 Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. They covered long distances in

 search of good pastureland for their cattle. They sold plough cattle and other goods to villagers in

 exchange for food grain and fodder.

             h.The Raikas

The Raikas were another group of herders that lived in the deserts of Rajasthan. In this region

 rainfall was meagre and uncertain. Harvests fluctuated every year on cultivated land. A vast

 stretched of land in this region remain barren. So, the Raikas combined cultivation with

 pastoralism. During the season of monsoon, the Raikas of Barmer, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Bikaner

 stayed in their home villages because pasture was available. One group of Raikas known as the

 Maru Raikas herded camels and another group reared sheep and goat.

             

  

            i.The Maasai

The title Maasai has been derived from the word maa. Maa-sai means ‘My People’ .They live

 mainly East Africa: 300,000 in Southern Kenya and another 150,000 in Tanzania. Most of them

 now reside in the semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rain fed agriculture is very difficult.

 They raise cattle, camels, goats, sheep and donkeys; and they sell milk, meat, animal skin and

wool. Some also earn their livelihood through trade and transport, others combine pastoral activity

 with agriculture;still others do a no. of odd jobs to supplement their meagre and uncertain earnings

 from pastoralism.