IX.Civics.Chapter 3.Constitutional Design
Raman's Classes
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day1.Period 1.Page 40-41.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms :
treason
apartheid
Persons.
Understandings Page.41.
Persons.
Understandings Page.41.
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN
OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
We noted in the
previous chapter that in a democracy the rulers are not free to do what they
like. There are certain basic rules that
the citizens and the government have to follow.
All such rules together are called constitution. As the supreme law of the country, the
constitution determines the rights of citizens, the powers of the government
and how the government should function.
In this chapter we ask some basic
questions about the constitutional design of a democracy, why do we need a
constitution? How are the constitutions
drawn up? Who designs them and in what
way? What are the values that shape
the constitutions in democratic states?
Once a constitution is accepted, can we make changes later as required
by the changing condition?
One recent
instance of designing constitution for a democratic state is that of the South
Africa. We begin this chapter by looking
at what happened there and how the South Africans went about this task of
designing their constitution. Then we
turn to how the Indian Constitution was made, what its foundational values
are, and how it provides a good framework for the conduct of citizen life
and that of the government.
Understandings Page.42.
3.1 DEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION IN SOUTH AFRICA
I have fought
against white domination and I have fought against black domination. I have
cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all individuals
live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which
I hope to live for and to achieve. But
if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die. "
This was
Nelson Mandela, being tried for treason by the white South African government.
He and seven other leaders were sentenced to
life imprisonment in 1964 for daring to oppose the apartheid regime in
his country. He spent the next 28 years in South Africa's most dreaded prison,
Robben Island.
 |
| 1.A signboard eblemic of the tense relation of the apartheid era,1953. |
Apartheid was the name of a system of racial discrimination unique to South Africa. The white Europeans imposed this system on South Africa. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the trading companies from Europe occupied it with arms and force, in the way they occupied India. But unlike India, a large number of 'whites' had settled in South Africa and became the local rulers.
The system
of apartheid divided the people and labeled them
on the basis of their skin color. The
native people of South Africa are black in color. They made up about three - fourth of the
population and were called 'blacks'. Besides these two groups, there were people of mixed races who were
called 'colored' and people who migrated from India. The white rulers treated all non whites as
inferiors. The non - whites did not have
voting rights, the apartheid system particularly oppressive for the
blacks. They were forbidden from living
in white areas. They could work in white
areas only if they had a permit.
Trains,
buses, taxis, hotels, hospitals, schools and colleges, libraries, cinema halls,
theaters, beaches, swimming pools, was public toilets, were all separate for n the whites and
blacks.
 |
| Figure 2. |
2. Sign on Durban beach in English, Africans and Zulu in English it reads : city of Durban Under section 37 of the Durban beach by laws, this bathing area is reserved for the sole use of members of the which race group.
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
---------------------
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day2.Period 2.Page 42-43.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms
Persons.
Understandings Page.42.
Persons.
Understandings Page.42.
This was a called
segregation. They could not even visit
the churches where the T whites worshipped.
Blacks could not form associations or protest against the terrible
treatment.
Since 1950, the blacks,
colored I and Indians fought against the t apartheid system. They launched protest marches and
strikes. The African National Congress
(ANC) was the umbrella organization that led the struggle against the policies
of segregation. This included many
workers' unions and the Communist Party.
Many sensitive whites also joined the ANC to oppose apartheid and played
a leading role in this struggle. Several
countries denounced apartheid as unjust and racist. But the white racist government continued to
rule by detain ing, torturing and killing thousands of black and colored
people.
Make a poster on the
life and struggle of Nelson Mandela
If available, read some portions of his
autobiography,
The Long Walk to Freedom, in the classroom.
Towards a new constitution
As protests and
struggles against apartheid had increased, the government realised that they
could no longer keep the blacks under their rule through repression. The white regime changed its policies. Discriminatory laws were repealed. Ban on political parties and restrictions on
the media were lifted. After 28 years of
imprisonment, Nelson Mandela walked out of the jail as a free man. Finally, at the midnight of 26 April 1994,
the new national flag of the Republic of South Africa was
unfurled marking the newly born democracy in the world The apartheid government
came to an end, paving way for the formation of a multi - racial government,
how did this come about? Let us hear
Mandela, the first president of this new 
South Africa, on this extra ordinary
transition:
Historical enemies succeeded in negotiating a peaceful
transition from apartheid to democracy exactly because we were prepared to
accept the inherent capacity for goodness in the other. My wish is that South Africans never give up on
the belief in goodness, that they cherish that faith in human beings is the
cornerstone of our democracy.
After the emergence of the new democratic
South Africa, black leaders appealed to fellow blacks to forgive the
whites for the atrocities they had
committed while in power. They said let
us build a new South Africa based on equality of all races and men and women,
on democratic values, social justice and human rights. The party that led through oppression and
brutal killings and the party that led the freedom struggle sat together to
draw up a common constitution.
After two
years of discussion and debate they came out with one of the finest
constitutions the world has ever had.
This constitution gave to its citizens the most extensive rights
available in any country. Together, they
decided that in the search for a solution to the problems, nobody should be
excluded, no one should be treated as a demon.
They agreed that everybody should become part of the solution, whatever
they might have done or represented in the past. The preamble to the South African
Constitution (see page 50) sums up this spirit.
Mandela said: "The Constitution of South Africa speaks of both the past
and the future. On the one hand, it is a solemn pact in which we, ds South
Africans, declare to one another that we shall
never permit a repetition of our racist, brutal and repressive past. But
it is more than that. It is also a charter for the transformation of our
country into one which is truly shared by all its people - a country which in
the fullest sense belongs to all of us,
black and white, women and men."
This image captures the spirit of South Africa today. South Africans call themselves a 'rainbow
nation'. Can you guess why?
Nature of colonialism
Relationship between different communities.
Leadership : Gandhi/Mandela
Party that led the struggle : African National Congress/ Indian National Congress
Method of struggle.
3.2.Why do we need a constitution.
The South African example is a good way to understand why we
need a constitution and what do constitutions do. The oppressor and the oppressed in this new
democracy were planning to live together as equals. It was not going to be easy for them to trust
each other. They had their fears. They
wanted to safeguard their interests. The
black majority was keen to ensure that the democratic principle of majority
rule was not compromised. They wanted
substantial social and economic rights.
The white minority was keen to protect its rights and property.
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
---------------------
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day3.Period 3.Page 44-45.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms:
Persons.
Understandings. Page 44.
After long negotiations both parties agreed to a
compromise. The whites agreed to the principle
of majority rule and that of one person one vote. They also agreed to accept some basic rights
for the poor and the workers. The blacks
agreed that majority rule would not be absolute. They agreed that the majority would not take
away the property of the white minority.
This compromise was not easy. How
was this compromise going to be implemented?
Even if they managed to trust each other, what was the guarantee that
this trust will not be broken in future?
The only way to build and maintain trust in such a situation is to write
down some rules of the game that everyone would abide by. These rules lay down how the rulers are to be
chosen in future. These rules also
determine what the elected governments are empowered to do and what they cannot
do. Finally these rules decide the
rights of the citizen. These rules will
work only if the winner cannot change them very easily. This is what the South Africans did. They agreed on some basic rules. They also agreed that these rules will be
supreme, that no government will be able to ignore these. This set of basic rules is called a
constitution. Constitution making is not
unique to South Africa. Every country
has diverse groups of people. Their
relationship may not have been as bad as that between the whites and the blacks
in South Africa. But all over the world
people have differences of opinion and interests. Whether democratic or not, most countries in
the world need to have these basic rules.
This applies not just to governments.
Any association needs to have its constitution. It could be a club in your area, a
cooperative society or a political party, they all need a
constitution.
Approach a club
or cooperative society or union or political party in your locality. Get a copy of their rule book (it is often
called Rules of Association) and read it.
Are these rules in accordance with principles of democracy?
Do they give membership to any person without
discrimination?
Thus, the constitution
of a country is a set of written rules that are accepted by all people living
together in a country. Constitution is
the supreme law that determines the relationship among people living in a
territory (called citizens) and also the relationship between the people and
government. A constitution does many
things:
Second, it specifies how the government will be constituted, who will
have power to take which decisions;
Third, it lays down limits on the powers of the government and tells us
what the rights of the citizens are; and
-
Fourth, it expresses the aspirations of the people about creating a good
society.
All countries that have
constitutions are not necessarily democratic.
But all countries that are democratic will have constitutions. After the War of Independence against Great
Britain, the Americans gave themselves a constitution. After the Revolution, the French people
approved a democratic constitution.
Since then it has become a practice in all democracies to have a written
constitution.
---------------------
Understandings. Page 45.
Terms :
Traumatic - Adj.घाव संबंधी
Consensus - Noun.आम सहमति
Rejuvenate - Verb.फिर से युवा करना
Persons.
(1875-1950) born: Gujrat. Minister of Home, information and Broadcasting in
the interim government. Lawyer and leader of Bardoli Peasant Satyagraha.
the interim government. Lawyer and leader of Bardoli Peasant Satyagraha.
Played a decisive role in the integration of the Indian Princely states as Junagarh, Hyderabad,. Jammu Kashmir.
Later Deputy Prime Minister.
Abul Kalam Azad. (1888 - 1958).
Congress leader, active in the national movement. Opposed Muslim Separatist politics.
Later he became the first Union Cabinet.
T. T. Krishnamchari. (1889 - 1974).
Born in Tamil Nadu.
Member of Drafting Committee.
Entrepreneur and Congress leader.
Later became the Finance Minister of India.
Eminent congress leader of South.
3.3 Making of the Indian constitution
Like South Africa ,India's Constitution was also drawn up under very difficult circumstances. The making of the constitution for a huge and
diverse country like India was not an easy affair.
At that time the people of India were emerging
from the status of subjects to that of citizens. The country was born through a partition on
the basis of religious differences. This
was a traumatic ( घाव संबंधी ) experience for the people of India and Pakistan.
At least ten lakh people were killed on both
sides of the border in partition related violence. There was another problem. The British had left it to the rulers of the
princely states to decide whether they wanted to merge with India or with
Pakistan or remain independent. The
merger of these princely states was a difficult and uncertain task. When the constitution was being written, the
future of the country did not look as secure as it does today. The makers of the constitution had anxieties
about the present and the future of the country.
Speak to your grandparents or some
other elders in your locality. Ask them
if they have any memory of partition or independence or the making of the
constitution. What were their tears and
hopes about the country at that time?
Discuss these in the classroom
The path to Constitution
Despite all
these difficulties, there was a big advantage for the makers of the Indian
Constitution. Unlike South Africa, they
did not have to create a consensus (आम सहमति )
about what a democratic India should look
like. Much
of this consensus had evolved during the freedom struggle. Our national movement was not merely a
struggle against a foreign rule. It was
also a struggle to rejuvenate our country and to transform our society and
politics. There were sharp differences
of opinion within the freedom struggle about the path India should take after
independence. Such differences exist
even today. Yet some basic ideas had
come to be accepted by almost everyone.
As far back as in
1928, Motilal Nehru and eight other Congress leaders
drafted a constitution for India. In
1931, the resolution at the Karachi session of the Indian National Congress
dwelt on how independent India's constitution should look like.
Both these documents were committed to the
inclusion of
(a).universal adult franchise,
(b).right to freedom and equality
(c).and to
protecting the rights of minorities in the constitution of independent
India.
Thus some basic values were
accepted by all leaders much before the Constituent Assembly met to deliberate
on the Constitution.
The familiarity
with political institutions of colonial rule also helped develop an agreement
over the institutional design.
The
British rule had given voting rights only to a few. On that basis the British had introduced very
weak legislatures.
Elections were held
in 1937 to Provincial Legislatures and Ministries all over British India. These were not fully democratic
governments. But the experience gained
by Indians in the working of the legislative institutions proved to be very useful
for the country in setting up its own institutions and working in them.
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
-------------------------
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day4.Period 4.Page 46-47.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms
Persons.
Understandings. Page 46.
Persons.
Rajendra Prasad.(1884 - 1963).
Born at Jiradai in Bihar.
Chairman of the Constituent Assembly.
Lawyer for the role in Champaran Satyagrah.
Three times became the President of Congress.
The First President of India.
Jaipal Singh.(1903-1970).
Jaipal Singh.1903 - 1970.
Born in Jharkhand.A sportsman and educationist.
Captain of the first National Hockey Team.
Founder President of the Adivashi Maha Sabha
Later founder of Jharkahand Party.
H. C. Mokherjee(1887- 1956)
Born in Bengal.
Vice Chairman of the Constiuent Assembly.
Reputed author and educationist.
Congress leader.
Member of All India Christian Council.
Bengal Legislative Assembly.
Later became the Governor of Bengal.
That
is why the Indian constitution adopted many institutional details and
procedures from colonial laws like the Government of India Act 1935.
Years of thinking and deliberation on the
framework of the constitution had another benefit. Our leaders gained confidence to learn from
other countries, but on our own terms.
Many of our leaders were inspired
(a). by the ideals of the French
Revolution,
(b). the practice of parliamentary democracy in Britain
(c). and the Bill of
Rights in the US.
(d). The socialist
revolution in Russia had inspired many Indians to think of shaping a system
based on social and economic equality.
Yet they were not simply imitating what others had done. At each step they were questioning whether
these things suited our country. All
these factors contributed to the making of our Constitution.
The Constituent Assembly Who, then, were the
makers of the Indian Constitution? You
will find here very brief sketch of some of the leaders who played an important
role in making the Constitution.
Find out more about any member of the Constituent Assembly from
your state or region who is not mentioned here.
Collect a photograph or make a sketch of that leader. Write a short note on him or her, following
the same style as used here: Name (year of birth - year of death), place of
birth (by current political boundaries), brief description of political
activities; role played atfter the
Constituent Assembly.
The drafting of
the document called the constitution was done by an assembly of elected
representatives called the Constituent Assembly. Elections to the Constituent Assembly were
held in July 1946. Its first meeting was held in December 1946. Soon after the
country was divided into India and Pakistan.
The Constituent Assembly was also divided into the Constituent Assembly
of India and that of Pakistan. The
Constituent Assembly that wrote the Indian constitution had 299 members. The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26
November 1949 but it came into effect on January 26, 1950. To mark this day we
celebrate January 26 as Republic Day every year.
Why should we accept the Constitution made by
this Assembly more than fifty years ago?
We have already noted one reason above.
The Constitution does not reflect the views of its members alone. It expresses a broad consensus of its
time. Many countries of the world have
had to rewrite their Constitution afresh because the basic rules were not
accepted to all major social groups or political parties. In some other countries, the Constitution
exists as a mere piece of paper. No one
actually follows it. The experience of
our Constitution is different. Over the
last half a century, several groups have questioned some provisions of the
Constitution. But no large social group
or political party has ever questioned the legitimacy of the Constitution
itself. This is an unusual achievement
for any constitution.
The second reason
for accepting the Constitution is that the Constituent Assembly represented the
people of India. There was no universal
adult franchise at that time. So the
Constituent Assembly could not have been chosen directly by all the people of
India. It was elected mainly by the members of the existing Provincial
Legislatures that we mentioned above.
Understandings. Page 47.
Persons.
G. Durgabai Deshmukh. (1909 - 1981).
Born in Andhra Pradesh.
Advocate and public activist.
Stood for women emancipation.
Founder of Andhra Mahila Sabha.
Congress leader
later Chairperson of Central Social Welfare Board.
Baldev Singh (1901-1961).
Born in Haryana.
A successful enterprenure.
A leader of Panthic Akali Party in the Punjab Assembly.
A nominee of the Congress in the Constituent Assembly.
Later he became the defence minister of the Union Council.
This ensured a fair geographical share of members from all the regions
of the country. The Assembly was
dominated by the Indian National Congress, the party that led India's freedom
struggle. But the Congress itself
included a variety of political groups and opinions. The Assembly had many members who did not
agree with the Congress. In social terms
too, the Assembly represented members from different language groups, castes,
classes, religions and occupations. Even
if the Constituent Assembly was elected by universal adult franchise, its
composition would not have been very different.
Finally, the manner in which the Constituent Assembly worked gives
sanctity to the Constitution.
The Constituent Assembly worked in a systematic, open and consensual manner. First some basic principles were decided and agreed upon. Then a Drafting Committee chaired by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar prepared a draft constitution for discussion. Several rounds of thorough discussion took place on the Draft Constitution, clause by clause. More than two thousand amendments were considered. The members deliberated for 114 days spread over three years. Every document presented and every word spoken in the Constituent Assembly has been recorded and preserved. These are called 'Constituent Assembly Debates'. When printed, these debates are 12 bulky volumes! These debates provide the rationale behind every provision of the Constitution. These are used to interpret the meaning of the Constitution.
Read the information about all the makers of constitution given in the side columns here.You don't need to memorise this information. Just give examples from these to support the following statements.1.The Assembly had many members who were not with the Congress.
2.The Assembly represented members from different social groups.
3. Members of the Assembly believed in different ideologies.
3.4 Guiding values of the Indian Constitution : In this book we shall study the exact provisions
of the Constitution on different subjects.
At this stage let us begin by understanding the overall philosophy of
what our Constitution is all about. We
can do this in two ways. We understand
it by reading the views of some of our major leaders on our Constitution. But it is equally important to read what the
Constitution says about its own philosophy.
This is what the preamble to the Constitution does. Let us turn to these, one by one.
The Dream and the Promise Some of you may
have noticed a name missing from the sketches of the makers of the
constitution: Mahatma Gandhi. He was not
a member of the Constituent Assembly.
Yet there were many members who followed his vision. Years ago, writing in his magazine Young
India in 1931, he had spelt out what he wanted the Constitution to do:
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
-------------------------
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day5.Period 5.Page 48-49.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms
Persons.
Kanhaiya Lal Munshi.(1887–1971)
Kanhaiyalal Maniklal Munshi (1887–1971)
Born in Gujarat,
An advocate, historian and linguist.
Congress leader and Gandhian.
Later • Minister in the Union Cabinet.
Founder of the Swatantra Party
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956)
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (1891–1956)
Born in Maharashtra, Chairman of the Drafting Committee.
Social revolutionary thinker and agitator against caste divisions and caste based inequalities l
Later law minister in the first cabinet of post - independence India.
Founder of Republican Party of India
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee (1901-1953)
Born in West Bengal,
Minister for Industry and Supply in the Interim Government
Educationist and Lawyer Active in Hindu Mahasabha
Later: Founder President of Bharatiya Jansangh
Understandings. Page 48.
The dream of an India that has eliminated inequality was shared by Dr. Ambedkar ,who played a key role in the making of the Constitution but he had a different understanding of how inequalities could be removed .He often bitterly criticized Mahatama Gandhi and his vision. In his concluding speech to the Constituent Assembly he stated his anxiety very clearly.
Finally let us turn to Jawaharlal Nehru giving his famous speech to the Constituent Assembly at the stroke of Midnight on August 15,1947.
Persons.
Jawaharlal Nehru (1889–1964)
Born at Uttar Pradesh.
Prime Minister of the interim government
lawyer and Congress leader.
Advocate of socialism, democracy and anti - imperialism,
Later became the first Prime Minister of India
Sarojini Naidu (1879–1949)
Born at Andhra Pradesh
Poet, writer and political activist.
Among the foremost women leaders in the Congress.
Later Governor of Uttar Pradesh
Born at West Bengal.
Writer and editor.
Leader of the Communist Party of India.
Later Member of West Bengal Legislative Assembly
Check your progress.Read the three quotations very carefully.
can you identify one idea that is common to all these three.
What are the differences in their ways of expressing that common idea.
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
------------------------
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day6.Period 6.Page 50-51.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms
Persons.
Understandings Page 50.
Philosophy of the Constitution
The Constitution begins with a short statement of its basic values. This is called the Preamble to the
constitution. Taking inspiration model,
most countries in the contemporary world from American have chosen to begin
their constitutions with a preamble.
Understandings Page 51.
Let us read the Preamble of our Constitution very carefully
and understand the meaning of each of its key words. The Preamble of the Constitution reads like a
poem on democracy. It contains the
philosophy on which the entire Constitution has been built. It provides a standard to examine and
evaluate any law and action of government, to find out whether it is good or
bad. It is the soul of the Indian
Constitution.
We the people of India The Constitution has been drawn up and enacted by the people through the representative ,and not handed down to them by a king or any outside power.
SOVEREIGN : People have supreme it to make is on internal as well as external matters No external power
can state the government of India
SOCIALIST : This generated 3000ly and should be shared equally by shared government
should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce
DEMOCRATIC : A form of government where people enjoy equal political rights. elect their rulers and hold them account
able. The government is run according to
some basic rules
REPUBLIC : The head of the state is an elected person and
not a hereditary position JUSTICE : Citizens cannot be discriminated on the
grounds of caste, religion and gender social inequalities have to be reduced
government should work for the welfare of all, especially of the disadvantaged
groups
LIBERTY : There are no unreasonable
restrictions on the citizens in what they think, how they wish to express their
thoughts and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action
EQUALITY : All are equal before the law. The
traditional social inequalities have to be ended. The government should ensure equal
opportunity for all
FRATERNITY : all of us should behave as if we are members of
the same family No one should treat a fellow citizen as inferior
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
------------------------
Chapter 3.Constitutional Design?
Day7.Period 6.Page 52.
Topic :
Topic :
Terms
Persons.
Understandings Page 52.
Check your progress.
Institutional design A constitution is not
merely a statement of values and philosophy.
As we noted above, a constitution is mainly about embodying these values
into institutional arrangements. Much
of the document called Constitution of India is about these arrangements. It is a very long and detailed document. Therefore it needs to be amended quite
regularly to keep it updated. Those who
crafted the Indian Constitution felt that it has to be in accordance with
people's aspirations and changes in society.
They did not see it as a sacred, static and unalterable law. So, they made provisions to include changes
from time to time. These changes are
called constitutional amendments.
The
Constitution describes the institutional arrangements in a very legal
language. If you read the Constitution
for the first time, it can be quite difficult to understand.
Yet Indian the basic institutional design is
not very difficult to understand. Like
any Constitution, the Constitution lays down a procedure for choosing persons
to govern the country. It defines who
will have how much power to take which decisions. And it puts limits to what the government can
do by providing some rights to the citizen that cannot be violated. The remaining three chapters in this book are
about these three aspects of the working of Indian constitution. We shall look at some key constitutional
provisions in each chapter and understand how they work in democratic
politics. But this textbook will not
cover all the salient features of the institutional design in the Indian
Constitution. Some other aspects will be
covered in your textbook next year.
Apartheid : The official policy of racial
separation and ill treatment of blacks followed by the government of South
Africa between 1948 and 1989.
Clause: A
distinct section of a document.
Constituent Assembly: An assembly of people's representatives that
writes a constitution for a country.
Constitution: Supreme law of a country, containing fundamental rules
governing the politics and society in a country.
Constitutional amendment: A change in the
constitution made by the supreme legislative body in a country.
Draft: A preliminary version of a legal document.
Philosophy: The most fundamental principles
underlying one's thought and actions.
Preamble: An introductory statement in a constitution which states the
reasons and guiding values of the constitution.
Treason.
The offence of attacking to overthrow the government of the state to
which the offender owes allegiance.
Tryst: A meeting or meeting place that has been agreed upon.
Home Assignment.
a. Attempt the inside Questions/Answers
b. Understand by your own.
c. Learn them.
d. Keep eyes over figure.
AtechdiMprav-po Maritza Jackson Here
ReplyDeletegingchecogbers